Pannotype (1853-1880)

A SHORT HISTORY

 The Pannotype was an inexpensive (and therefore attractive) process first introduced by Wulff and Co. in 1853 as an alternative to the fragile glass and paper supports of the time. Used only for portraits, the process resulted in a direct positive collodion silver photograph on a support of waxed textile fabric. These images were mainly transferred onto black oilcloth and patent leather, as the word pannotype stems from the Latin ‘pannos’ (meaning ‘cloth’).  Common formats include Carte-de-visite and cabinet cards.

THE PROCESS

The George Eastman House explains how this process was executed:

“These direct positive collodion images were made on glass and transferred onto a secondary support material by placing the glass plate bearing the image in an acidified water bath that caused the collodion film to shrink. The secondary support was then placed in the water and the two were taken out of the bath with the image in contact with the surface of the secondary support. The back of the support was then pressed against the glass with a squeegee and the plate. The back of the plate was then gently heated until the image and support fell from the glass.”

The transfer of the collodion (ambrotype image-carrying) layer onto a waxed textile reduced all danger of breakage and therefore made it possible to keep the photograph in an album/portfolio/locket/etc.

PRESERVATION AND IDENTIFICATION

Once dry, the image adheres strongly to fabric and resists even vigorous rubbing. This does not apply to long-term preservation however, and pannotypes are an extremely rare find today. Unfortunately, pannotypes are rarely found in good condition. Deterioration will often reflect the following:

• Reduced contrast 
• Collodion often cracked 
• Brittle/fragile textile support

 When caring for a pannotype, one should:

• Put into a protective mat if not framed
• Do not expose to intense light
• Like other direct positive collodion images, supply in a sealed package

Here is an example of a pannotype that was transferred onto leather:

Unidentified. “Unidentified woman, head and shoulders portrait”. George Eastman House Collection. 1981:2499:0001. Circa 1855. Accessed on ARTstor 26 February 2013. http://library.artstor.org/library/secure/ViewImages?id=8DVEZjI%2FJjs0IjZUej54RnoqWngtdQ%3D%3D&userId=hTFBcz4v&zoomparams=

  

Note the cracked composition when this image is magnified: 

REFERENCES:

Frisch, Karen. Unlocking the Secrets in Old Family Photographs. Ancestry Publishing. 1991.

George Eastman House. “George Eastman House: Notes On Photographs - Pannotype” Last modified June 26, 2009. http://notesonphotographs.org/index.php?title=Pannotype.

Lavédrine, Bertand and Jean-Paul Gandolfo, John P. McElhone. Photographs of the Past: Process and Preservation. Getty Publications. 2009.

www.artstor.org

OTHER RESOURCES:

Are you interested in viewing the insides of a pannotype photograph?

Augustus Washington, Daguerreotypist

I thought I would post the link to this interesting profile that showed up on Twitter this morning:

http://blogs.loc.gov/picturethis/2013/02/augustus-washington-daguerreotypist/

Gum Bichromate

Gum Bichromate Process and Print

History:

Motiv aus Pommern,
by Hugo Henneberg
Gum bichromate print, 1902.
The Metropolitan Museum of Art.

Gum bichromate, or gum dichromate as it is also known, is a photographic printing process invented in the early days of photography when, in 1839, a Scottish inventor Mungo Ponton discovered that dichromates are light sensitive. William Henry Fox Talbot, inventor of the calotype process, later found that colloids such as gelatin and gum arabic became insoluble in water after exposure to light. Alphonse Poitevin, a French chemist, added carbon pigment to the colloids in 1855, creating the first carbon print. In 1858, John Pouncy used colored pigment with gum arabic to create the first color images; thus, the first true gum bichromate print.   

Dame mit Pfingstrosen (Emma Kuhn-Katsung - wife),
by Heinrich Kuhn. 
Gum bichromate print, ca. 1900.
George Eastman House Collection.

This process was used by fine art photographers, popular up until the 1920's; however, alternative photographic artists have revived this process stretching the boundaries with watercolor variations.  As mentioned, any variation of pigmentation can be used as long as it is water soluble, and most materials receiving the emulsion can be used such as various types of paper, wood, and plastics.  The gum print can be resensitized and reprinted using different colors if so desired; by applying multiple colors, the variations are unlimited.  

Portrait of a woman - profile,
by Elias Goldensky (American, 1867-1943).gum bichromate print, ca. 1915.George Eastman House.

Gum bichromate images will feature a slightly fuzzy, or soft, blended lines look to it, which may resemble a drawing from a crayon or charcoal.  Unless the gum print is framed, an observer will see the brush strokes where the gum emulsion was applied along the edges of photograph.  Most gum prints, even some produced today, may look like a painting from a glance rather than a photo print.  The finished prints are generally stable, and surviving prints from the late 19th century are usually in excellent shape.   

The Pool--Evening:A Symphony to a Race and to a Soul,
by Steichen, Edward, 1879-1973.
Gum bichromate-platinum print, 1898.
ARTstor Slide Gallery.

Process:

• A photographic emulsion is mixed using gum arabic, and ammonium or potassium dichromate.
• Water soluble pigment(s) are mixed into the now light sensitive emulsion.
• The emulsion is coated onto a piece of paper smoothly using a fine wide brush applying even horizontal and vertical strokes. 
• The coated paper is set to dry for several hours in the dark.
• A negative is placed over the dry emulsion and sandwiched under glass.
• The print is exposed to ultraviolet light for a few minutes.
• The print is then washed under running cold water to wash off the gum emulsion in order to develop image. An additional soaking in clean water for further development; additional colored tones may be added to enrich and enhance image.   

Rhine Street, Krefeld, by Scharf, Otto.
Gum bichromate, 1898.
ARTstor Slide Gallery.

References:


Coe, Booth, and Mark Haworth-Booth. A Guide to Early Photographic Processes. The Victoria and Albert Museum, 1983. 


Lavedrine, Bertrand. Photographs of the Past. Los Angeles: The Getty Conservation Institute, 2009. 

Ritzenthaler, Mary L, Diane Vogt-O'Connor, and Mary L. Ritzenthaler. Photographs: Archival Care and Management. Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006.

Wikipedia, Gum Bichromate entry, retrieved Feb 25, 2013.
http://en.wikipedia.org/wiki/Gum_bichromate

www.artstor.org

www.billymabrey.com 

What is a Gum Bichromate Print?, YouTube,
 http://youtu.be/RoiajbLFsRE

St Pauls Photography - Gum Bichromate, YouTube, 
http://www.youtube.com/watch?v=1cTL6NDTh9o&feature=share&list=PLFCA0312707ABA522

Carbon Print

Harriet Farnie and Miss Farnie with a Sleeping Puppy, Brownie

Robert Adamson, David Octavius Hill
1920 (original negative around 1845)

Accession no. PGP HA 390
Medium Carbon print
Size 15.40 x 20.20 cm
Credit Elliot Collection, bequeathed 1950

The Carbon Print Process

Introduction:

The carbon print process came out of the desire to make more permanent images.  Other processes, like calotypes or daguerreotypes, had already begun to show signs of fading if not handled correctly. Photographers and publishers were also looking for better ways to publish photographs. Because carbon printing did not use the metals or chemicals other processes did, they were very stable and did not deteriorate. Time has only confirmed this. Though the process fell out of favor in the 1930's, it is still in use in a small way today.

History:

 Although Sir Joseph William Swan, an English citizen, secured the patent for the carbon print process in 1864, he was working off of discoveries made even earlier. Alphonse Poitevin is given credit for introducing photographic printing using dichromated pigment as early as 1855. However, it is Swan who gets the credit for the process as a whole and who, in 1866, began marketing the ready made carbon tissue in three tones: black, sepia, and purple-brown. The U.S. acquired the rights to the patent in 1867, though it remained far more popular in England and Europe than it ever was in the United States. The process was used regularly until the 1930s. Today, although there are photographers who use the carbon print process, the carbon tissue used to make the prints is no longer commercially available, and hasn't been since the 1980s.

Adolphe Braun, Alsace. Carbon print. Boston Athenaeum

Characteristics:

Carbon printing is known for its wide range of tones and rich shadows. Because carbon prints can use any color and can be mounted on almost any support, they are often be mistaken for other processes, like platinum prints. However, they are most commonly confused with woodburytypes. Due to the nature of the process, the carbon print can sometimes be identified by the slight bas-relief from the support.

Process:

The carbon print process begins with the carbon tissue, a piece of paper that has been treated with pigments in gelatin. In the beginning, the pigment was powdered carbon, like lampblack (aka soot), hence the name "carbon print." The negative would be placed in contact with the tissue and then exposed to ultraviolet light. The gelatin would harden in proportion to how much light exposure it got. Sections of the gelatin that were fully exposed to light would harden completely and become insoluble, whereas sections that were not exposed at all would remain soluble. The surface of the gelatin would then be transferred to a support. The photographers would wash the support gently in warm water and the soluble sections would wash away. The gelatin would lift cleanly off the support, leaving a developed image behind.

In the above process, known as the single transfer, the image would be laterally reversed. However, photographers could correct that by using the double transfer variation. In double transfer, the exposed tissue is first developed on a temporary surface (like plastic or vinyl) before being transferred to a final support.

There are numerous advantages to Carbon prints. They have been found to be extremely versatile in terms of mounting. Carbon prints can be found on a variety of supports, such as glass, paper, leather, wood, and metal. And although they are usually found in black-and-white and sepia tones, it is is a process to which color can be added using pigmented gelatin. However it is a long and demanding process to get a full color range.

There are some disadvantages to the carbon print process, too. For starters, it requires a very strong light source that most amatures don't have available. Also, handling the carbon can be extremely messy; it is as fine as cigarette smoke and difficult to weigh. Lastly, it is a time-consuming process.

 

 

Links:

If, however, you are still interested in making your very own carbon print -- or if you just want more detail into how it is done nowadays, these links could be very helpful:
The Bostick and Sullivan Book of Modern Carbon Printing
The Carbon Transfer Process

Sources:

Coe, Brian and Mark Haworth-Booth. A Guide to Early Photographic Processes. England: The Westerham Press, 1983. Print.

King, Sandy. "The Carbon Transfer Process." Alternative Photography. n.p., 29 Nov. 2002. Web. 26 Feb. 2013.

Ritzenthaler, Mary Lynn, et al. Photographs: Archival Care and Management. Chicago: Society of American Archivists, 2006. Print.

Shoppman, Jim. "Carbon Printing - Theory." Angelic Images. n.p., 5 Aug. 2003. Web. 26 Feb. 2013.

Sullivan, Dick. The Bostick and Sullivan Book of Modern Carbon Printing. Sante Fe: The Bostick and Sullivan Press, 2007. Web. 25 Feb. 2013.

Welling, William. Collector's Guide to Nineteenth-Century Photographs. New York: Macmillan Publishing Co., Inc., 1976.

Picture Sources:
King, Sandy, and Mike Robinson and Sam Wang. "The Carbon Transfer Process." Alternative Photography. n.p., 29 Nov. 2002. Web. 26 Feb. 2013.

Detroit Publishing Company, publisher. Lower Falls of Yellowstone, Wyoming. Carbon print, copyright 1908.

Polaroid Instant Film and Cameras

In 1943, Edwin H. Land’s three-year-old daughter asked him why she had to wait so long to see their family photos (Kaplan). This inspired him to pursue the embodiment of an instantaneous photographic process. Reportedly, Land figured out the basic concept of one-step photography in about an hour; carrying out his idea and translating it into an operable product took a few more years. He announced his new invention to the Optical Society of America in 1947 (The Polaroid Book 24; Spina) and introduced his new camera, the Polaroid Land Model 95 in 1948 (Marien 362-363; Rosenblum 603). This state-of-the-art device cost about $95.00--which converts into about $860.00 today.

Land’s Polaroid process accomplished the long-sought-after task of sensitizing and processing photographic film inside the camera. Although it wasn’t the first piece of equipment with the ability to sensitize and develop film inside it (Rosenblum 603), the Polaroid camera was the first with the ability to instantly print photographs (“instantly” meant it took about one minute to develop).  

The Polaroid Land Model 95

The general process is outlined by Rosenblum: 

A large roll of print paper and a smaller roll of negative paper, connected by a leader, fitted into the top and bottom of the camera back. By means of the leader, the negative paper and the print paper were brought together and drawn between a pair of rollers, which broke a pod of processing chemicals, carried on the print strip, and spread its contents evenly between the two strips. After one minute, the finished print could be removed from the camera through a flap in the back (604).

Watch the following video to get a better idea of how this original camera worked:

For the next couple of decades, Polaroid released around fifty new cameras, each further improving upon the structure, exposure time, flash systems, development timers, accessories, batteries, and film (The Polaroid Book 369-380). Finally, in 1972, the SX-70 camera was introduced. The SX-70 automatically ejected the color print from the camera immediately after the photo was taken. Although deceivingly compact, it included an automatic focus and an electronic flash, and the battery was integrated into the film pack (Rosenblum 603).

The Polaroid SX-70

Watch the following video to see an original SX-70 commercial. Pay particular attention to the segment between 4:43 and 9:55 for information about the inner-workings of the camera and how the mechanisms interact with the film.

Polaroid instant prints are most easily identified by their unique border. These border shapes served important purposes inside the camera, housing the pods that released the chemicals needed to develop the images. Additionally, prints were usually labeled on the back with either the Polaroid Corporation name or the name of the material used. For more tips on identifying instant prints, visit the Graphics Atlas website.

Image from http://portroids.tumblr.com/post/3938865930/bradley-cooper-because-he-has-a-movie-coming

Image from http://jkldesign.blogspot.com/2009/09/polaroid-fashion-fabulous.html

Edwin Land’s Polaroid process made the instant photography experience possible for everyone. (The Polaroid Book 21). This new product not only improved the documentation of everyday life, it changed the fields of medicine, law enforcement, insurance, advertising, and fashion (Shpak). With the release of the SX-70, the Polaroid process became a catalyst for color photographs to take over black-and-white in the world of amateur photographers. Much of the art world still remained partial to black-and-white photos, but Polaroids charmed the general population--and slowly, artists followed--into the world of color (Marien 363).

Creator: Andy Warhol
Title: Farah Diba Pahlavi (Queen of Iran)
Date: March 1976
Retrieved from ARTstor

         

Creator: Andy Warhol
Title: Shoes
Date: 1980
Retrieved from ARTstor

The Artist Support Program was started in the 1960s to assist emerging photographers as well as Polaroid in establishing a reputation. In exchange for their photographs and feedback, Polaroid would lend photographers the latest equipment. This helped Polaroid build up a collection of photographs and improve their products. Over one thousand photographers collaborated with Polaroid, including Ansel Adams and Andy Warhol (The Polaroid Book 24-29; Hitchcock).

Art photographers often manipulated and altered their Polaroids, using ink, fabric, and wooden and metal tools to change the appearance of images. For a demonstration of Polaroid manipulation, click here. 

An example of a manipulated SX-70 print
Creator: Samaras, Lucas, 1936-
Title: Photo-Transformation
Date: November 1, 1973
Retrieved from ARTstor

Creator: Barbara Kasten
Title: Metaphase 5
Date: 1985
Retrieved from ARTstor

There were further developments in instant Polaroid products up until the 2000s, but unfortunately all instant film was discontinued in 2008. There are a few groups worldwide attempting to invent film that will be compatible with the original Polaroid equipment. The most notable of these groups is The Impossible Project. You can find more information about their efforts here.

__________________________

Works Cited

Hitchcock, Barbara. “Facts About the Polaroid Collections,” 21 Apr. 2010. Web. 25 Feb. 2013. <http://74.220.207.133/~nearbyca/artandphoto/photocritic/wp-content/uploads/2010/05/Polaroid_FactSheet_Hitchcock_20105.pdf>

Hitchcock, Barbara. The Polaroid Book: Selections From the Polaroid Collections of Photography. London : Taschen, 2005. Print.

Kaplan, Michael. "Instant Karma." American Photo 23.1 (2012): 50-77. Art Full Text (H.W. Wilson). Web. 27 Feb. 2013.

Marien, Mary Warner. Photography: A Cultural History. New York : Harry N. Abrams, 2002. Print.

Rosenblum, Naomi. A World History of Photography. New York : Abbeville Press, 1984. Print.

Shpak, Scott. “What Impact Did the First Polaroid Camera Have on America?” eHow. Web. 27 Feb. 2013. <http://www.ehow.com/info_12096167_impact-did-first-polaroid-camera-america.html>

Spina, Tony. Polaroid Enters The Amateur Conventional Film Market. The Chicago Tribune, 28 Apr. 1989. Web. 25 Feb. 2013. <http://articles.chicagotribune.com/1989-04-28/entertainment/8904080273_1_polaroid-spectra-edwin-h-land-camera>.

Additional Electronic Sources:

www.youtube.com

http://www.the-impossible-project.com/about/

http://www.dailyicon.net/2008/12/icon-polaroid-sx-70-part-ii/

http://www.ssplprints.com/image/83688/polaroid-land-camera-model-95-1948-1953